Methods for determining meniscal size and shape and for devising treatment

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to methods for determining meniscal size and shape for use in designing therapies for the treatment of various joint diseases. The invention uses an image of a joint that is processed for analysis. Analysis can include, for example, generating a thickness map, a cartilage curve, or a point cloud. This information is used to determine the extent of the cartilage defect or damage and to design an appropriate therapy, including, for example, an implant. Adjustments to the designed therapy are made to account for the materials used.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/424,964 filed on Nov. 7, 2002.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Certain aspects of the invention described below were made with United States Government support under Advanced Technology Program 70NANBOH3016 awarded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The United States Government may have rights in certain of these inventions.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods for determining meniscal size and shape for use in designing therapies for the treatment of various joint diseases. This method is then used to design an implant or articular repair system for use in a joint.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There are various types of cartilage, e.g., hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage. Hyaline cartilage is found at the articular surfaces of bones, e.g., in the joints, and is responsible for providing the smooth gliding motion characteristic of moveable joints. Articular cartilage is firmly attached to the underlying bones and measures typically less than 5 mm in thickness in human joints, with considerable variation depending on the joint and more particularly the site within the joint. In addition, articular cartilage is aneural, avascular, and alymphatic

Adult cartilage has a limited ability of repair; thus, damage to cartilage produced by disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis and/or osteoarthritis, or trauma can lead to serious physical deformity and debilitation. Furthermore, as human articular cartilage ages, its tensile properties change. Thus, the tensile stiffness and strength of adult cartilage decreases markedly over time as a result of the aging process.

For example, the superficial zone of the knee articular cartilage exhibits an increase in tensile strength up to the third decade of life, after which it decreases markedly with age as detectable damage to type II collagen occurs at the articular surface. The deep zone cartilage also exhibits a progressive decrease in tensile strength with increasing age, although collagen content does not appear to decrease. These observations indicate that there are changes in mechanical and, hence, structural organization of cartilage with aging that, if sufficiently developed, can predispose cartilage to traumatic damage.

Once damage occurs, joint repair can be addressed through a number of approaches. The use of matrices, tissue scaffolds or other carriers implanted with cells (e.g., chondrocytes, chondrocyte progenitors, stromal cells, mesenchymal stem cells, etc.) has been described as a potential treatment for cartilage and meniscal repair or replacement. See, also, International Publications WO 99/51719 to Fofonoff, published Oct. 14, 1999; WO01/91672 to Simon et al., published Dec. 6, 2001; and WO01/17463 to Mannsmann, published Mar. 15, 2001; U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,980 B1 to Vibe-Hansen et al., issued Sep. 4, 2001, U.S. Pat. No. 5,842,477 to Naughton issued Dec. 1, 1998, U.S. Pat. No. 5,769,899 to Schwartz et al. issued Jun. 23, 1998, U.S. Pat. No. 4,609,551 to Caplan et al. issued Sep. 2, 1986, U.S. Pat. No. 5,041,138 to Vacanti et al. issued Aug. 29, 1991, U.S. Pat. No. 5,197,985 to Caplan et al. issued Mar. 30, 1993, U.S. Pat. No. 5,226,914 to Caplan et al. issued Jul. 13, 1993, U.S. Pat. No. 6,328,765 to Hardwick et al. issued Dec. 11, 2001, U.S. Pat. No. 6,281,195 to Rueger et al. issued Aug. 28, 2001, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,846,835 to Grande issued Jul. 11, 1989. However, clinical outcomes with biologic replacement materials such as allograft and autograft systems and tissue scaffolds have been uncertain since most of these materials cannot achieve a morphologic arrangement or structure similar to or identical to that of normal, disease-free human tissue it is intended to replace. Moreover, the mechanical durability of these biologic replacement materials remains uncertain.

Usually, severe damage or loss of cartilage is treated by replacement of the joint with a prosthetic material, for example, silicone, e.g. for cosmetic repairs, or suitable metal alloys. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,443,991 B1 to Running issued Sep. 3, 2002, U.S. Pat. No. 6,387,131 B1 to Miehlke et al. issued May 14, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,383,228 to Schmotzer issued May 7, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,344,059 B1 to Krakovits et al. issued Feb. 5, 1002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,203,576 to Afriat et al. issued Mar. 20, 2001; U.S. Pat. No. 6,126,690 to Ateshian et al. issued Oct. 3, 2000; U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,103 to Kaufman et al. issued Jan. 11, 2000. Implantation of these prosthetic devices is usually associated with loss of underlying tissue and bone without recovery of the full function allowed by the original cartilage and, with some devices, serious long-term complications associated with the loss of significant amounts of tissue and bone can include infection, osteolysis and also loosening of the implant.

As can be appreciated, joint arthroplasties are highly invasive and require surgical resection of the entire, or a majority of the, articular surface of one or more bones involved in the repair. Typically with these procedures, the marrow space is fairly extensively reamed in order to fit the stem of the prosthesis within the bone. Reaming results in a loss of the patient's bone stock and over time subsequent osteolysis will frequently lead to loosening of the prosthesis. Further, the area where the implant and the bone mate degrades over time requiring the prosthesis to eventually be replaced. Since the patient's bone stock is limited, the number of possible replacement surgeries is also limited for joint arthroplasty. In short, over the course of 15 to 20 years, and in some cases even shorter time periods, the patient can run out of therapeutic options ultimately resulting in a painful, non-functional joint.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,206,927 to Fell, et al., issued Mar. 27, 2001, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,558,421 to Fell, et al., issued May 6, 2003, disclose a surgically implantable knee prosthesis that does not require bone resection. This prosthesis is described as substantially elliptical in shape with one or more straight edges. Accordingly, these devices are not designed to substantially conform to the actual shape (contour) of the remaining cartilage in vivo and/or the underlying bone. Thus, integration of the implant can be extremely difficult due to differences in thickness and curvature between the patient's surrounding cartilage and/or the underlying subchondral bone and the prosthesis.

Interpositional knee devices that are not attached to both the tibia and femur have been described. For example, Platt et al. (1969) “Mould Arthroplasty of the Knee,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 51B(1):76-87, describes a hemi-arthroplasty with a convex undersurface that was not rigidly attached to the tibia.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,502,161 to Wall issued Mar. 5, 1985, describes a prosthetic meniscus constructed from materials such as silicone rubber or Teflon with reinforcing materials of stainless steel or nylon strands. U.S. Pat. No. 4,085,466 to Goodfellow et al. issued Mar. 25, 1978, describes a meniscal component made from plastic materials. Reconstruction of meniscal lesions has also been attempted with carbon-fiber-polyurethane-poly (L-lactide). Leeslag, et al., Biological and Biomechanical Performance of Biomaterials (Christel et al., eds.) Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam. 1986. pp. 347-352. Reconstruction of meniscal lesions is also possible with bioresorbable materials and tissue scaffolds.

However, currently available devices do not always provide ideal alignment with the articular surfaces and the resultant joint congruity. Poor alignment and poor joint congruity can, for example, lead to instability of the joint. In the knee joint, instability typically manifests as a lateral instability of the joint.

Thus, there remains a need for methods that recreate natural or near natural relationships between two articular surfaces of the joint (such as the femoral condyle and the tibial plateau).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, when the meniscus is present in the subject, the invention includes measuring the dimensions and/or shape, parameters of the meniscus. Such dimensions and parameters include, for example, but are not limited to, the maximum anterior-posterior distance of the meniscus, the maximum medial-lateral distance of the meniscus, the size or area of the meniscal attachment(s), the maximum length of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum height of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum height of the body, the maximum and minimum height of the posterior horn, the maximum height and minimum height of the meniscus, the maximum and minimum width of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum width of the body, the maximum and minimum width of the posterior horn, meniscal radii and angles at various locations. These measurements can then be used to design therapies for the treatment of joint diseases. These treatments can include, for example, meniscal repair systems, cartilage repair systems, articular repair systems and arthroplasty systems and they can consist of, for example, biologic materials, tissue scaffolds, plastic, metal or metal alloys, or combinations thereof. Therapies can be custom-made, typically utilizing at least one or more of these measurements. Alternatively, a pre-made, “off-the-shelf” component closely matching at least one or more of these measurements can be selected.

In another aspect, the invention includes measuring the dimensions and/or shape parameters of the contralateral meniscus. Such dimensions and parameters include, for example, but are not limited to, the maximum anterior-posterior distance of the meniscus, the maximum medial-lateral distance of the meniscus, the size or area of the meniscal attachment(s), the maximum length of the anterior horn, the maximum length of the body, the maximum length of the posterior horn, the maximum and minimum height of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum height of the body, the maximum and minimum height of the posterior horn, the maximum height and minimum height of the meniscus, the maximum and minimum width of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum width of the body, the maximum and minimum width of the posterior horn, meniscal radii, and angles at various locations.

In one embodiment, the meniscus of the opposite compartment can be used to create a mirror image of the meniscus on the diseased side. These measurements can then be used to determine meniscal size and/or shape in designing treatments for the diseased joint. These treatments can include, for example, meniscal repair systems, cartilage repair systems, articular repair systems and arthroplasty systems and they can consist of, for example, biologic materials, tissue scaffolds, plastic, metal or metal alloys or combinations thereof. Therapies can be custom-made, typically utilizing at least one or more of these measurements. Alternatively, a pre-made, “off-the-shelf” component matching or closely matching at least one or more of these measurements can be selected.

In yet another embodiment, the 3D geometry of the meniscus on the affected site can be derived from measurements from neighboring articular surfaces and structures to recreate the shape and size of the diseased meniscus. Such measurements include, for example, but are not limited to, tibial bone dimensions, such as maximum anterior-posterior distance, maximum medial-lateral distance, maximum distance from the tibial spine to the edge, width of the tibial spines, height of the tibial spines, area of tibial plateau occupied by tibial spines, depth of tibial plateau, 2D and 3D shape of tibial plateau; femoral condyle bone dimensions, such as maximum anterior-posterior distance, maximum superior-inferior distance, maximum medial-lateral distance, maximum distance from the trochlea to the medial or lateral edge; width and depth of intercondylar notch, curvature at select regions along the femoral condyle, 2D and 3D shape.

In yet another aspect, when applied to the knee joint the invention includes one or more of the following measurements: (1) tibial bone dimensions, for example, maximum anterior-posterior distance, maximum medial-lateral distance, maximum distance from the tibial spine to the edge, width of the tibial spines, height of the tibial spines, area of tibial plateau occupied by tibial spines, depth of tibial plateau, 2D and 3D shape of tibial plateau; (2) tibial cartilage dimensions, including thickness and shape; (3) femoral condyle bone dimensions, for example, maximum anterior-posterior distance, maximum superior-inferior distance, maximum medial-lateral distance, maximum distance from the trochlea to the medial or lateral edge; width and depth of intercondylar notch, curvature at select regions along the femoral condyle, 2D and 3D shape; and (4) femoral cartilage measurements including thickness and shape. These measurements can then be used to estimate meniscal size and/or shape for the treatment of joint diseases. These treatments can include, for example, meniscal repair systems, cartilage repair systems, articular repair systems and arthroplasty systems and it can consist of, for example, biologic materials, tissue scaffolds, plastic, metal or metal alloys, or combinations thereof. Therapies can be custom-made, typically utilizing at least one or more of these measurements. Alternatively, a pre-made, “off-the-shelf” component closely matching at least one or more of these measurements can be selected.

In a further aspect, meniscal measurements are taken from a reference population possessing normal or near normal menisci. Meniscal measurements can include, but are not limited to, for example, the maximum anterior-posterior distance of the meniscus, the maximum medial-lateral distance of the meniscus, the size or area of the meniscal attachment(s), the maximum length of the anterior horn, the maximum length of the body, the maximum length of the posterior horn, the maximum and minimum height of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum height of the body, the maximum and minimum height of the posterior horn, the maximum height and minimum height of the meniscus, the maximum and minimum width of the anterior horn, the maximum and minimum width of the body, the maximum and minimum width of the posterior horn, meniscal radii and angles at various locations.

Additional non-meniscal measurements can also be taken using the same reference population and may include one or more of the following: (1) tibial bone dimensions, for example, maximum anterior-posterior distance, maximum medial-lateral distance, maximum distance from the tibial spine to the edge, width of the tibial spines, height of the tibial spines, area of tibial plateau occupied by tibial spines, depth of tibial plateau, 2D and 3D shape of tibial plateau; (2) tibial cartilage dimensions including thickness and shape; (3) femoral condyle bone dimensions, for example, maximum anterior-posterior distance, maximum superior-inferior distance, maximum medial-lateral distance, maximum distance from the trochlea to the medial or lateral edge, width and depth of the intercondylar notch, curvature at select regions along the femoral condyle, 2D and 3D shape, (4) femoral cartilage measurements including thickness and shape; (5) measuring the patellar bone dimensions; (6) measuring the patellar cartilage dimensions including thickness and shape; and/or (7) measuring the size, length or shape of ligamentous structures such as the cruciate ligaments.

The size and/or shape of the menisci in the reference population can then be correlated to one or more of the additional non-meniscal measurements. Once a correlation is established, the bone and/or cartilage and/or ligamentous dimensions with the highest correlation to meniscal size and/or shape can be used to predict meniscal size and/or shape in designing therapies for persons suffering from joint disease. The data from the reference population is typically stored in a database which can be periodically or continuously updated. Using this information, therapies can be devices which include, for example, meniscal repair systems, cartilage repair systems, articular repair systems and arthroplasty systems and they can consist of, for example, biologic materials, tissue scaffolds, plastic, metal or metal alloys, or combinations thereof. Therapies can be custom-made, typically utilizing at least one or more of these measurements. Alternatively, a pre-made, “off-the-shelf” component closely matching at least one or more of these measurements can be selected. For example, a meniscal repair system can be selected utilizing this information. Alternatively, this information can be utilized in shaping an interpositional arthroplasty system.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The file of this patent contains a least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent with color drawings will be provided by the United States Patent and Trademark Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

FIG. 1A illustrates an example of a Placido disk of concentrically arranged circles of light. FIG. 1B illustrates an example of a projected Placido disk on a surface of fixed curvature.

FIG. 2 shows a reflection resulting from a projection of concentric circles of light (Placido Disk) on each femoral condyle, demonstrating the effect of variation in surface contour on the reflected circles.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a 2D color-coded topographical map of an irregularly curved surface.

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a 3D color-coded topographical map of an irregularly curved surface.

FIG. 5 illustrates surface registration of MRI surface and a digitized surface using a laser scanner. The illustration to the left shows the surface before registration and the illustration to the right shows the surface after registration.

FIG. 6 is a reproduction of a three-dimensional thickness map of the articular cartilage of the distal femur. Three-dimensional thickness maps can be generated, for example, from ultrasound, CT or MRI data. Dark holes within the substances of the cartilage indicate areas of full thickness cartilage loss.

FIG. 7 illustrates the cartilage surface of a medial femoral condyle from a sagittal scan (blue) and a coronal scan (red).

FIG. 8A illustrates an axial view of a meniscus; FIG. 8B illustrates a sagittal view of the meniscus; and FIG. 8C illustrates a coronal view of the meniscus.

FIG. 9A illustrates a sagittal view of the tibia; and FIG. illustrates a coronal view of the tibia.

FIG. 10A illustrates a sagittal view of the femur; and FIG. 10B illustrates a coronal view of the femur.

FIGS. 11A-C illustrate a chart showing the tibial cartilage surface and superior meniscal surface combined after extraction from a coronal FSE, and a meniscal surface scaled to account for compression under loading conditions. From the information is derived the cross-section of the implant, FIG. 11C.

FIG. 12 illustrates a point cloud of an implant surface (yellow) that approximates smooth surface patch (brown).

FIGS. 13A and B are views of an implant suitable for use on a condyle of the femur shown from the inferior and superior surface viewpoints, respectively.

FIG. 14 is a view of an implant suitable for a portion of the tibial plateau in the knee.

FIGS. 15A-D are views of an implant suitable for the hip.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The following description is presented to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the invention. Various modifications to the embodiments described will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles defined herein can be applied to other embodiments and applications without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. Thus, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the embodiments shown, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and features disclosed herein. To the extent necessary to achieve a complete understanding of the invention disclosed, the specification and drawings of all issued patents, patent publications, and patent applications cited in this application are incorporated herein by reference.

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, the practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of x-ray imaging and processing, x-ray tomosynthesis, ultrasound including A-scan, B-scan and C-scan, computed tomography (CT scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), optical coherence tomography, single photon emission tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature and need not be described herein. See, e.g., X-Ray Structure Determination: A Practical Guide, 2nd Edition, editors Stout and Jensen, 1989, John Wiley & Sons, publisher; Body CT: A Practical Approach, editor Slone, 1999, McGraw-Hill publisher; X-ray Diagnosis: A Physician's Approach, editor Lam, 1998 Springer-Verlag, publisher; and Dental Radiology: Understanding the X-Ray Image, editor Laetitia Brocklebank 1997, Oxford University Press publisher.

The present invention solves the need for methods to recreate natural or near natural relationships between two articular surfaces by providing methods for determining meniscal size and shape. Meniscal size and shape can be useful in designing therapies for the treatment of joint diseases including, for example, meniscal repair, meniscal regeneration, and articular repair therapies.

I. Assessment of Joints

The methods and compositions described herein can be used to treat defects resulting from disease of the cartilage (e.g., osteoarthritis), bone damage, cartilage damage, trauma, and/or degeneration due to overuse or age. The invention allows, among other things, a health practitioner to evaluate and treat such defects.

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, size, curvature and/or thickness measurements can be obtained using any suitable technique. For example, one dimensional, two dimensional, and/or three dimensional measurements can be obtained using suitable mechanical means, laser devices, electromagnetic or optical tracking systems, molds, materials applied to the articular surface that harden and “memorize the surface contour,” and/or one or more imaging techniques known in the art. Measurements can be obtained non-invasively and/or intraoperatively (e.g., using a probe or other surgical device). As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, the thickness of the repair device can vary at any given point depending upon the depth of the damage to the cartilage and/or bone to be corrected at any particular location on an articular surface.

A. Imaging Techniques

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, imaging techniques suitable for measuring thickness and/or curvature (e.g., of cartilage and/or bone) or size of areas of diseased cartilage or cartilage loss include the use of x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography scanning (CT, also known as computerized axial tomography or CAT), optical coherence tomography, SPECT, PET, ultrasound imaging techniques, and optical imaging techniques. (See, also, International Patent Publication WO 02/22014 to Alexander, et al., published Mar. 21, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,373,250 to Tsoref et al., issued Apr. 16, 2002; and Vandeberg et al. (2002) Radiology 222:430436). Contrast or other enhancing agents can be employed using any route of administration, e.g. intravenous, intra-articular, etc.

In certain embodiments, CT or MRI is used to assess tissue, bone, cartilage and any defects therein, for example cartilage lesions or areas of diseased cartilage, to obtain information on subchondral bone or cartilage degeneration and to provide morphologic or biochemical or biomechanical information about the area of damage. Specifically, changes such as fissuring, partial or full thickness cartilage loss, and signal changes within residual cartilage can be detected using one or more of these methods. For discussions of the basic NMR principles and techniques, see MRI Basic Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Mark A. Brown and Richard C. Semelka, Wiley-Liss, Inc. (1999). For a discussion of MRI including conventional T1 and T2-weighted spin-echo imaging, gradient recalled echo (GRE) imaging, magnetization transfer contrast (MTC) imaging, fast spin-echo (FSE) imaging, contrast enhanced imaging, rapid acquisition relaxation enhancement (RARE) imaging, gradient echo acquisition in the steady state (GRASS), and driven equilibrium Fourier transform (DEFT) imaging, to obtain information on cartilage, see Alexander, et al., WO 02/22014. Thus, in preferred embodiments, the measurements produced are based on three-dimensional images of the joint obtained as described in Alexander, et al., WO 02/22014 or sets of two-dimensional images ultimately yielding 3D information. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional images, or maps, of the cartilage alone or in combination with a movement pattern of the joint, e.g. flexion—extension, translation and/or rotation, can be obtained. Three-dimensional images can include information on movement patterns, contact points, contact zone of two or more opposing articular surfaces, and movement of the contact point or zone during joint motion. Two and three-dimensional images can include information on biochemical composition of the articular cartilage. In addition, imaging techniques can be compared over time, for example to provide up-to-date information on the shape and type of repair material needed.

Any of the imaging devices described herein can also be used intra-operatively (see, also below), for example using a hand-held ultrasound and/or optical probe to image the articular surface intra-operatively.

B. Intraoperative Measurements

Alternatively, or in addition to, non-invasive imaging techniques described above, measurements of the size of an area of diseased cartilage or an area of cartilage loss, measurements of cartilage thickness and/or curvature of cartilage or bone can be obtained intraoperatively during arthroscopy or open arthrotomy. Intraoperative measurements may or may not involve actual contact with one or more areas of the articular surfaces.

Devices suitable for obtaining intraoperative measurements of cartilage or bone or other articular structures, and to generate a topographical map of the surface include but are not limited to, Placido disks and laser interferometers, and/or deformable materials or devices. (See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,382,028 to Wooh et al., issued May 7, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,057,927 to Levesque et al., issued May 2, 2000; U.S. Pat. No. 5,523,843 to Yamane et al. issued Jun. 4, 1996; U.S. Pat. No. 5,847,804 to Sarver et al. issued Dec. 8,1998; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,684,562 to Fujieda, issued Nov. 4, 1997).

FIG. 1A illustrates a Placido disk of concentrically arranged circles of light. The concentric arrays of the Placido disk project well-defined circles of light of varying radii, generated either with laser or white light transported via optical fiber. The Placido disk can be attached to the end of an endoscopic device (or to any probe, for example a hand-held probe) so that the circles of light are projected onto the cartilage surface. FIG. 1B illustrates an example of a Placido disk projected onto the surface of a fixed curvature. One or more imaging cameras can be used (e.g., attached to the device) to capture the reflection of the circles. Mathematical analysis is used to determine the surface curvature. The curvature can then, for example, be visualized on a monitor as a color-coded, topographical map of the cartilage surface. Additionally, a mathematical model of the topographical map can be used to determine the ideal surface topography to replace any cartilage defects in the area analyzed.

FIG. 2 shows a reflection resulting from the projection of concentric circles of light (Placido disk) on each femoral condyle, demonstrating the effect of variation in surface contour on reflected circles.

Similarly a laser interferometer can also be attached to the end of an endoscopic device. In addition, a small sensor can be attached to the device in order to determine the cartilage surface or bone curvature using phase shift interferometry, producing a fringe pattern analysis phase map (wave front) visualization of the cartilage surface. The curvature can then be visualized on a monitor as a color coded, topographical map of the cartilage surface. Additionally, a mathematical model of the topographical map can be used to determine the ideal surface topography to replace any cartilage or bone defects in the area analyzed. This computed, ideal surface, or surfaces, can then be visualized on the monitor, and can be used to select the curvature, or curvatures, of the replacement cartilage.

One skilled in the art will readily recognize that other techniques for optical measurements of the cartilage surface curvature can be employed without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, a 2-dimentional or 3-dimensional map, such as that shown in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 can be generated.

Mechanical devices (e.g., probes) can also be used for intraoperative measurements, for example, deformable materials such as gels, molds, any hardening materials (e.g., materials that remain deformable until they are heated, cooled, or otherwise manipulated). See, e.g., WO 02/34310 to Dickson et al., published May 2, 2002. For example, a deformable gel can be applied to a femoral condyle. The side of the gel pointing towards the condyle can yield a negative impression of the surface contour of the condyle. The negative impression can then be used to determine the size of a defect, the depth of a defect and the curvature of the articular surface in and adjacent to a defect. This information can be used to select a therapy, e.g. an articular surface repair system. In another example, a hardening material can be applied to an articular surface, e.g. a femoral condyle or a tibial plateau. The hardening material can remain on the articular surface until hardening has occurred. The hardening material can then be removed from the articular surface. The side of the hardening material pointing towards the articular surface can yield a negative impression of the articular surface. The negative impression can then be used to determine the size of a defect, the depth of a defect and the curvature of the articular surface in and adjacent to a defect. This information can then be used to select a therapy, e.g. an articular surface repair system. In some embodiments, the hardening system can remain in place and form the actual articular surface repair system.

In certain embodiments, the deformable material comprises a plurality of individually moveable mechanical elements. When pressed against the surface of interest, each element can be pushed in the opposing direction and the extent to which it is pushed (deformed) can correspond to the curvature of the surface of interest. The device can include a brake mechanism so that the elements are maintained in the position that conforms to the surface of the cartilage and/or bone. The device can then be removed from the patient and analyzed for curvature. Alternatively, each individual moveable element can include markers indicating the amount and/or degree it is deformed at a given spot. A camera can be used to intra-operatively image the device and the image can be saved and analyzed for curvature information. Suitable markers include, but are not limited to, actual linear measurements (metric or empirical), different colors corresponding to different amounts of deformation and/or different shades or hues of the same color(s). Displacement of the moveable elements can also be measured using electronic means.

Other devices to measure cartilage and subchondral bone intraoperatively include, for example, ultrasound probes. An ultrasound probe, preferably handheld, can be applied to the cartilage and the curvature of the cartilage and/or the subchondral bone can be measured. Moreover, the size of a cartilage defect can be assessed and the thickness of the articular cartilage can be determined. Such ultrasound measurements can be obtained in A-mode, B-mode, or C-mode. If A-mode measurements are obtained, an operator can typically repeat the measurements with several different probe orientations, e.g. mediolateral and anteroposterior, in order to derive a three-dimensional assessment of size, curvature and thickness.

One skilled in the art will easily recognize that different probe designs are possible using the optical, laser interferometry, mechanical and ultrasound probes. The probes are preferably handheld. In certain embodiments, the probes or at least a portion of the probe, typically the portion that is in contact with the tissue, can be sterile. Sterility can be achieved with use of sterile covers, for example similar to those disclosed in WO 99/08598A1 to Lang, published Feb. 25, 1999.

Analysis on the curvature of the articular cartilage or subchondral bone using imaging tests and/or intraoperative measurements can be used to determine the size of an area of diseased cartilage or cartilage loss. For example, the curvature can change abruptly in areas of cartilage loss. Such abrupt or sudden changes in curvature can be used to detect the boundaries of diseased cartilage or cartilage defects.

II. Segmentation of Articular Cartilage, Bone and Menisci

A semi-automated segmentation approach has been implemented based on the live wire algorithm, which provides a high degree of flexibility and therefore holds the potential to improve segmentation of osteoarthritic cartilage considerably. Images are optionally pre-processed using a non-linear diffusion filter. The live wire algorithm assigns a list of features to each oriented edge between two pixels (boundary element—bel) in an image. Using an individual cost function for each feature, the feature values are converted into cost values. The costs for each feature are added up by means of a predetermined weighting scheme, resulting in a single joint cost value between 0 and 1 for each bel b that expresses the likelihood of b being part of the cartilage boundary. To determine the contour of a cartilage object, the operator chooses a starting pixel P. Subsequently, the system calculates the least cost bel path from each image pixel to P with a dynamic programming scheme. When the operator selects another pixel, the system displays the calculated path from the current mouse position to P in real time. This current path can be frozen as part of the cartilage contour by the operator. This way, the operator has to assemble the desired contour in each slice from a number of pieces (“strokes”).

The features of a bel b used with this segmentation technique are the gray values left and right of b and the magnitude of the gray level gradient across b.

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, all or a portion of the segmentation processes described can be automated as desired. As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, other segmentation techniques including but not limited to thresholding, grey level gradient techniques, snakes, model based segmentation, watershed, clustering, statistical segmentation, filtering including linear diffusion filtering can be employed.

III. Validation of Cartilage Surface Segmentation

In order to validate the accuracy of the segmentation technique for the articular cartilage surface, the cartilage surface extracted from MRI scans can be compared with results obtained from segmentation of the joint surface data which is acquired, for example, using a laser scanner after specimen dissection. The resulting two surfaces from MRI and laser scan can be registered using the iterative closest point method, and the distance between each point on the MRI surface to the registered laser scan surface can be used to determine the accuracy of the MRI segmentation results. FIG. 5 shows the MRI and digitized surfaces before and after registration. The distance measurements for the two specimens are shown in TABLE 1.

TABLE 1 DISTANCE CALCULATIONS BETWEEN SEGMENTED MRI AND LASER DIGITIZED SURFACES (IN MM) Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Specimen Distance Distance Distance M Deviation σ 1 3.60447e−05 2.10894 0.325663 0.312803 2 2.79092e−06 1.616828 0.262131 0.234424

In this example, the data illustrate that the average error between the segmented MRI surface and the laser scan surface is within the range of the resolution of the MRI scan. Thus, the segmentation approach yields an accuracy within the given MRI scan parameters.

IV. Calculation and Visualization of Cartilage Thickness Distribution

A suitable approach for calculating the cartilage thickness is based on a 3D Euclidean distance transform (EDT). An algorithm by Saito and Toriwaki can be used to achieve computationally very fast (less than 10 sec for a 256×256×60 data set on a SGI O2) data processing. The algorithm functions by decomposing the calculation into a series of 3 one-dimensional transformations and uses the square of the actual distances. This process accelerates the analysis by avoiding the determination of square roots. For initialization, voxels on the inner cartilage surface (ICS) are given a value of 0, whereas all other voxels, including the ones on the outer cartilage surface (OCS) are set to 1.

First, for a binary input picture F={f_(ijk)} (1≦i≦L, 1, ≦j≦M, 1≦k≦N) a new picture G={g_(ijk)} is derived using equation 1 (α, β, and γ denote the voxel dimensions).

$\begin{matrix} {g_{ijk} = {\min\limits_{x}\left\{ {\left( {\alpha\left( {i - x} \right)} \right)^{2};{f_{xjk} = 0};{1 \leq x \leq L}} \right\}}} & \left\lbrack {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 1} \right\rbrack \end{matrix}$

Thus, each point is assigned the square of the distance to the closest feature point in the same row in i-direction. Second, G is converted into H={h_(ijk)} using equation 2.

$\begin{matrix} {h_{ijk} = {\min\limits_{y}\left\{ {{g_{iyk} + \left( {\beta\left( {j - y} \right)} \right)^{2}};{1 \leq y \leq M}} \right\}}} & \left\lbrack {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 2} \right\rbrack \end{matrix}$

The algorithm searches each column in j-direction. According to the Pythagorean theorem, the sum of the square distance between a point (i,j,k) and a point (i,y,k) in the same column, (β(j−y))², and the square distance between (i,y,k) and a particular feature point, g_(iyk), equals the square distance between the point (i,j,k) and that feature point. The minimum of these sums is the square distance between (i,j,k) and the closest feature point in the two-dimensional i-j-plane.

The third dimension is added by equation 3, which is the same transformation as described in equation 2 for the k-direction.

$\begin{matrix} {s_{ijk} = {\min\limits_{z}\left\{ {{h_{ijz} + \left( {\gamma\left( {k - z} \right)} \right)^{2}};{1 \leq z \leq N}} \right\}}} & \left\lbrack {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 3} \right\rbrack \end{matrix}$

After completion of the EDT, the thickness of the cartilage for a given point (a,b,c) on the OCS equals the square root of s_(abc). This results in a truly three-dimensional distance value determined normal to the ICS. The x, y, and z position of each pixel located along the bone-cartilage interface is registered on a 3D map and thickness values are translated into color values. In this fashion, the anatomic location of each pixel at the bone-cartilage interface can be displayed simultaneously with the thickness of the cartilage for that given location (FIG. 6).

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, other techniques for calculating cartilage thickness can be applied, for example using the LaPlace equation, without departing from the scope of the invention.

V. Calculation and Visualization of Cartilage Curvature Distribution

Another relevant parameter for the analysis of articular cartilage surfaces is curvature. In a fashion similar to the thickness map, a set of curvature maps can be derived from the cartilage surface data that is extracted from the MRI.

A local bi-cubic surface patch is fitted to the cartilage surface based on a sub-sampling scheme in which every other surface point is used to generate a mesh of 5×5 point elements. Thus, before performing the fit the density of the data is reduced in order to smooth the fitted surface and to reduce the computational complexity.

After computation of the local bi-cubic surface fits, the unit normal vectors {n} are implicitly estimated from the surface fit data. The corresponding curvature and its orientation are then given by: κ_(i)=arc cos(n ₀ ·n _(i))|ds _(i) =dθ/ds _(i), where n_(o) is the unit normal vector at the point (u,v) where the curvature is being estimated and n_(i) (i=1, . . . , 24) are the unit normal vectors at each one of the surrounding points in the 5×5 local surface patch. FIG. 6 shows an example of the maximum principal curvature maps (value and direction), estimated using the bi-cubic surface patch fitting approach.

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, other techniques, such as n-degree polynomial surface interpolation or approximation, parametric surface interpolation or approximation and different discrete curvature estimation methods for measuring curvature or 3D shape can be applied.

VI. Fusion of Image Data from Multiple Planes

Recently, technology enabling the acquisition of isotropic or near-isotropic 3-dimensional image data has been developed. However, most MRI scans are still acquired with a slice thickness that is 3 or more times greater than the in-plane resolution. This leads to limitations with respect to 3D image analysis and visualization. The structure of 3-dimensional objects cannot be described with the same accuracy in all three dimensions. Partial volume effects hinder interpretation and measurements in the z-dimension to a greater extent than in the x-y plane.

To address the problems associated with non-isotropic image resolutions, one or more first scans S1 are taken in a first plane. Each of the first scans are parallel to each other. Thereafter, one or more second scans S2 are taken with an imaging plane oriented to the first scan S1 so that the planes intersect. For example, scans S1 can be in a first plane while scans S2 are in a plane perpendicular to the first plane. Additional scans in other planes or directions, e.g., S3 , S4 . . . Sn, can also be obtained in addition to the perpendicular scans or instead of the perpendicular scans. S2 , and any other scans, can have the same in-plane resolution as S1 . Any or all of the scans can also contain a sufficient number of slices to cover the entire field of view of S1 . In this scenario, two data volumes with information from the same 3D space or overlapping 3D spaces can be generated.

Data can be merged from these two scans to extract the objects of interest in each scan independently. Further, a subsequent analysis can combine these two segmented data sets in one coordinate system, as is shown in FIG. 6. This technique is helpful in outlining the boundaries of objects that are oriented parallel to the imaging plane of S1 , but therefore will be perpendicular to the imaging plane of S2.

For quantitative measurements, such as determining the cartilage volume, it can be advantageous to combine S1 and S2 directly into a third data volume. This third data volume is typically isotropic or near-isotropic with a resolution corresponding to the in-plane resolution of S1 and S2 , thus reducing partial volume effects between slices (FIG. 7). S1 and S2 can first be registered into the same coordinate system. If both scans are acquired during the same session (without moving the patient between scans), the image header information is used to obtain the transformation matrix. Otherwise, a mutual information-based rigid registration is applied. The gray value for each voxel V of the third data volume is calculated as follows:

-   -   (1) determine the position in 3D space for V;     -   (2) determine the gray values in S1 and S2 at this position;     -   (3) interpolate the two gray values into a single gray value G;         and     -   (4) assign G to V.

As an alternative to fusion of two or more imaging planes, data can be obtained with isotropic or near isotropic resolution. This is possible, for example, with spiral CT acquisition technique or novel MRI pulse sequence such as 3D acquisition techniques. Such 3D acquisition techniques include 3D Driven Equilibrium Transfer (DEFT), 3D Fast Spin-Echo (FSE), 3D SSFP (Steady State Free Precession), 3D Gradient Echo (GRE), 3D Spoiled Gradient Echo (SPGR), and 3D Flexible Equilibrium MR (FEMR) techniques. Images can be obtained using fat saturation or using water selective excitation. Typically, an isotropic resolution of 0.5×0.5×0.5 mm or less is desirable, although in select circumstances 1.0×1.0×1.0 and even larger can yield adequate results. With near isotropic resolution, the variation in voxel dimensions in one or more planes does not usually exceed 50%.

VII. In Vivo Measurement of Meniscal Dimensions

The dimensions and shape of a personalized interpositional arthroplasty system can be determined by measuring a patient's meniscal shape and size and by evaluating the 3D geometry of the articular cartilage. Many osteoarthritis patients, however, have torn menisci, often times with only small or no meniscal remnants. In these patients, the shape of a personalized interpositional arthroplasty system can be determined by acquiring measurements of surrounding articular surfaces and structures.

In the knee, for example, a few measurements can be made on the femoral and tibial bone in MR images of the diseased knee. For optimal fit, the shape of the superior surface of the implant should resemble that of the superior surface of the respective meniscus. Measurements of the bones can help determine how well meniscal dimensions can be predicted.

FIG. 8A illustrates an axial view of a meniscus 100. The meniscus has a maximum anterior-posterior distance 1, and a maximum medial lateral distance 2. In the knee, the meniscus compensates for an anterior horn and a posterior which each have a maximum length 3, 5 and width9, 11. The body itself has a maximum length 4 and width 10 which are a function of the patient's anatomy. FIG. 8B illustrates a sagittal view of the meniscus in FIG. 8A. The meniscus 100 has a maximum height 6, 8 which correlates to the maximum height of the anterior horn and the posterior horn. FIG. 8C illustrates a coronal view of the meniscus 100. From the coronal view it is apparent that the body has a maximum and minimum height.

Turning now to FIG. 9A, a sagittal view of a tibia 110 is shown. The tibia has a maximum anterior-posterior distance 12. FIG. 9B illustrates the coronal view of the tibia 110 shown in FIG. 9A. From the sagittal view it is apparent that the tibia has a maximum medial-lateral distance 13, a maximum distance from the tibial spine to the edge 14, and a width 15.

The tibia mates with the femur 120, which is shown in a sagittal view in FIG. 10A. The femur has a maximum anterior-posterior distance 16 and a maximum superior-interior distance 17. From the coronal view shown in FIG. 10B the maximum medial-lateral distance 18, the distance from the trochlea to the edge 19, and the width of the intercondylar notch 20 is apparent.

A Pearson's correlation coefficient r can be obtained for a variety of measurements to assess how well one variable is expressed by another variable. Suitable measurements include, for example, the following measurements:

-   -   antero-posterior (AP) length of medial (lateral) meniscus with         AP length of medial (lateral) femoral condyle;     -   AP length of medial (lateral) meniscus with AP length of medial         (lateral) tibial plateau;     -   medio-lateral (ML) width of medial (lateral) meniscus with ML         width of medial (lateral) femoral condyle;     -   ML width of medial (lateral) meniscus with ML width of medial         (lateral) tibial plateau;     -   Y coordinate of highest point of medial (lateral) meniscus with         y coordinate of highest point of medial (lateral) tibial spine;     -   X coordinate of medial (lateral) margin of medial (lateral)         meniscus with x coordinate of medial (lateral) margin of medial         (lateral) femoral condyle; and     -   X coordinate of medial (lateral) margin of medial (lateral)         meniscus with x coordinate of medial (lateral) margin of medial         (lateral) tibial plateau.

Examples of measurements obtained are summarized in

TABLE 2 CORRELATION BETWEEN MENISCAL DIMENSIONS AND DIMENSIONS OF FEMORAL AND TIBIAL BONE Measurement Imaging Plane N Pearson's r AP Length: medial meniscus - medial Sagittal 23 0.74 femoral condyle AP Length: lateral meniscus - lateral Sagittal 24 0.73 femoral condyle AP Length: medial meniscus - medial Sagittal 23 0.79 tibial plateau AP Length: lateral meniscus - lateral Sagittal 24 0.27 tibial plateau ML Width: menisci - femur Coronal 12 0.91 ML Width: menisci - tibia Coronal 12 0.92 ML Width: menisci - medial femoral Coronal 12 0.81 condyle ML Width: menisci - lateral femoral Coronal 12 0.65 condyle ML Width: menisci - medial tibial Coronal 12 0.86 plateau ML Width: menisci - lateral tibial Coronal 12 0.48 plateau ML Width: medial meniscus - medial Coronal 12 0.95 femoral condyle ML Width: lateral meniscus - lateral Coronal 12 0.45 femoral condyle ML Width: medial meniscus - medial Coronal 12 0.69 tibial plateau

TABLE 2 CORRELATION BETWEEN MENISCAL DIMENSIONS AND DIMENSIONS OF FEMORAL AND TIBIAL BONE Measurement Imaging Plane N Pearson's r ML Width: lateral meniscus - lateral Coronal 12 0.34 tibial plateau ML Length: medial meniscus - lateral Coronal 12 0.12 meniscus Meniscal Height: medial meniscus - Coronal 12 0.01 lateral meniscus Meniscal Height: Medial meniscal Coronal 12 0.22 height - medial femoral height Meniscal Height: Lateral meniscal Coronal 12 0.22 height - lateral femoral height Meniscal Height: Medial meniscal Coronal 12 0.55 height - medial tibial height Meniscal Height: Lateral meniscal Coronal 12 0.17 height - lateral tibial height Highest Point (y coordinate): medial Coronal 12 0.99 meniscus - medial tibial spine Highest Point (y coordinate): lateral Coronal 12 0.90 meniscus - lateral tibial spine Medial margin (x-coordinate): medial Coronal 12 1.00 meniscus - femoral condyle Lateral margin (x-coordinate): lateral Coronal 12 1.00 meniscus - lateral femoral condyle Medial Margin (x-coordinate): medial Coronal 12 1.00 meniscus - medial tibial plateau Lateral Margin (x-coordinate): lateral Coronal 12 1.00 meniscus - lateral tibial plateau

The Pearsons' coefficient determines the relationship between two sizes that are measured. The higher the correlation, the better the relationship between two measurements. From the data in TABLE 2, it becomes evident that, in the knee, the AP length of both medial and lateral menisci can be predicted well by measuring the length of the respective femoral condyle. For the medial meniscus, the length of the medial tibial plateau can also be used. The ML width of the medial femoral condyle is a good predictor for the width of the medial meniscus. The height of the medial and lateral tibial spines correlates well with the height of the respective menisci. Correlations between ML width of the lateral meniscus and width of the lateral femoral condyle and tibial spine are lower due to a high variability of the most lateral point of the lateral meniscus. As opposed to these outermost points of the lateral meniscus, the main margins correlate very well with the margins of the tibia and femur. This is also the case for the medial meniscus. Consequently, the outer margins of medial and lateral menisci can be determined.

These results show that meniscal dimensions can be predicted in a reliable fashion by measuring bony landmarks in MR images. Where the Pearson's coefficient is high (e.g., close to 1), the two measurements can, in effect, be used interchangeably to represent the measurement desired. Where the Pearson's coefficient is low (e.g., 0.34), a correction factor may be applied to the measurement. The measurement as corrected may then equal or approximate the corresponding measurement. In some instances, use of a correction factor may not be feasible or desired. In that instance, other approaches, such as logistic regression and multivariate analysis, can be used as an alternative without departing from the scope of the invention.

A person of skill in the art will appreciate that while this data has been presented with respect to the meniscus in the knee and measurement of knee anatomy relative thereto, similar results would occur in other joints within a body as well. Further, it is anticipated that a library of measurements can be created, for example for generating one or more correlation factors that can be used for a particular joint. For example, a single correlation factor can be generated using a plurality of measurements on different subjects.

Alternatively, a plurality of correlation factors can be generated based on, for example, joint assessed, size, weight, body mass index, age, sex of a patient, ethnic background. In this scenario, a patient seeking treatment can be assessed. Measurements can be taken of, for example, the medial femoral condyle. The correlation factor for the medial femoral condyle in the patient can then be compared to a correlation factor calculated based on samples wherein the sample patients had the same, or were within a defined range for factors, including for example: size, weight, age and sex.

VIII. Surface Digitization

Digitized surface data from menisci of cadaveric specimens for generation of a generic meniscal model can be acquired using a Titanium FaroArm® coordinate measurement machine (CMM) (FARO Technologies Inc., Lake Mary, Fla.).

IX. 3D Design Techniques for Anatomically Correct Interpositional Arthroplasty System

The design workflow for each implant can consist of a combination of one or more of the following steps:

-   -   a. Fusion of the sagittal and coronal 3D SPGR or 2D or 3D FSE         data or other sequences for a joint;     -   b. Segmentation of point data from the cartilage surface of a         joint;     -   c. Fusion of the sagittal and coronal 2D or 3D FSE or 2D SE data         or other sequences of a joint;     -   d. Segmentation point data of the superior meniscal surface;     -   e. Combination of cartilage surface data and meniscal surface         data to serve as model for a surface of an implant;     -   f. Compression of a meniscal surface by factor ranging from 0.2         to 0.99;     -   g. Conversion of point cloud data for a superior and an inferior         implant surface into parametric surface data; and     -   h. Cutting of parametric surface data sets to determine exact         shape of implant.

In many patients with advanced osteoarthritis, however, the meniscus is, to a great extent, depleted, and therefore cannot serve directly as a template from which the superior implant surface can be derived.In these cases, dimensions of the remaining joint bone, can be used to adjust the size of a generic meniscal model, which can then serve as a template for the implant.

X. Derivation of Implant Surfaces from Cartilage and Healthy Meniscal Surfaces

The superior surface of an implant can be modeled based on the superior meniscal surface and the joint cartilage surface in those areas that are not covered by the meniscus. Therefore, after the slice-by-slice segmentation of the superior meniscal surface from the SE or FSE or other MRI images and the tibial cartilage surface from the 3D SPGR or FSE or other MRI images, both data sets will be combined (FIGS. 11A-C). To determine the composite surface for the prosthesis, the intersection between the two surfaces is located. In the event that the two surfaces do not intersect in a particular slice, the intersection between the tangential line through the central end of the meniscal surface with the tibial surface will be calculated (FIG. 11A). To account for natural compression of the elastic meniscus under load, its height can be adjusted, for example, to 60% of the original height (FIG. 11B). For this purpose, each point on the meniscal surface is connected to the closest point on the cartilage surface. The new point for the adjusted meniscal surface is chosen at 60% of the distance from the tibial cartilage surface.

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, a variety of other adjustment ratios can be used without departing from the scope of the invention. Suitable adjustment ratios will vary depending on patient physiology and desired degree of correction and include, for example, ratios that range from 0.2 to 1.5. The amount of height adjustment of the implant relative to the natural meniscus will vary depending upon the material that the implant is manufactured from. For example, where the implant is manufactured from a material having a high degree of elasticity, it may be desirable to use an adjustment greater than 1. Where the material has a low degree of elasticity, the adjustment is likely to approach 50%. The appropriate adjustment will also depend upon the joint for which the implant is manufactured. Thus, for example, an implant manufactured for the knee using a material with a low degree of elasticity can have an adjustment of between 50-70%, while an implant manufactured for the shoulder also using a material with a low degree of elasticity may have a desired adjustment of 60-80%. Persons of skill in the art will appreciate that the correction factor for an implant will vary depending upon the target joint and the properties of the material from which the implant is manufactured.

The adjustment ratio can also vary depending on the location within a joint with a plurality of ratios possible for any given design. For example, in a knee joint, an adjustment ratio close to 0.8 can be used anteriorly, while an adjustment ratio close to 0.5 can be used posteriorly. Additionally, more adjustment ratios can be selected such that the adjustment ratio gradually changes, for example, anteriorly, depending on the anticipated biomechanics of the joint. Changes can also be made to the adjustment ratio as a result of patient specific parameters such as age, sex, weight, ethnicity, and activity level. The adjustment ratio can be selected in order to achieve an optimal biomechanical or functional result. In vitro cadaveric testing, constraint testing, testing of contact surface, fatigue testing and robotic testing can, for example, be used for determining the optimal adjustment ratio(s) for an implant.

Finally, to determine the shape of the superior surface of the implant, the compressed meniscal surface can be combined with the portion of the tibial cartilage surface that is not covered by the meniscus. The shape of, for example, an inferior surface of the implant can be derived from the entire cartilage surface (FIG. 11C) or the subchondral bone surface. The latter can be used, for example, if there is significant eburnation of the joint and most of the cartilage has been lost.

XI. Derivation of Superior Implant Surface in Case of Damaged Meniscus

In patients with a damaged or degenerated meniscus or those that had a prior meniscectomy, the meniscal surface cannot be used as a template for an implant surface as described above. In these cases, a generic meniscal model can be used to design the desired implant surface.

The generic meniscal model can be generated from data that is, for example, collected from cadaveric femoral specimens using a Titanium FaroArm as described above. Alternatively, a laser scanning device or an optical device can be used. In this instance, meniscal surface data can be digitized, for example, from ten frozen cadaveric tibial specimens. All surface data sets obtained can then be matched for size differences using, for example, an affine surface registration scheme. The matched surface points after registration can then be merged into a single point cloud. A generic meniscal surface, S_(g), can be fitted through a point cloud using a least-squares optimization, resulting in a “mean” surface of the ten specimens.

Typically, dimensions of healthy menisci correlate well with dimensions of bony landmarks. Therefore, measurements of bony landmarks in an MRI can be used to reconstruct the dimensions of the healthy meniscus (see, e.g., TABLE 2, above). The antero-posterior length L will be calculated from the length of the femoral condyle. For determining medio-lateral meniscal width W, we can use the position of the medial margin of the tibia for the medial meniscus and the lateral tibial margin for the lateral meniscus. The height H can be derived from the highest point of the tibial spine.

Once the values L, W, and H have been determined, S_(g) can be deformed accordingly. Each point P in S_(g) with the coordinates (x, y, z) can be transformed into a new point P′ using Equation 4:

$\begin{matrix} {{P^{\prime} = {\left( {x^{\prime},y^{\prime},z^{\prime}} \right) = \left( {{\frac{L}{L_{g}} \cdot x},{\frac{W}{W_{g}} \cdot y},{\frac{H}{H_{g}} \cdot z}} \right)}},} & \left\lbrack {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 4} \right\rbrack \end{matrix}$

where L_(g), W_(g), and H_(g) are the respective dimensions of S_(g). The transformed points P′ can form the meniscal surface S that will be used as a template for designing the superior implant surface as described in the previous section.

XII. Final Steps of Implant Design

The first and second implant surfaces derived from an MR image, as described above, consist of point clouds. The point clouds can be converted into a data format that then can be manipulated in, for example, a CAD system. The Surface Patch function in the surface modeling program Rhinoceros can be used to approximate a smooth surface patch to the point cloud data (FIG. 12). This surface can then be exported in the IGES format to be read by the CAD software. Other software programs can be used without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, Pro/Engineer, Solid Edge, Alibre and IronCAD are also suitable programs.

Using the CAD software SolidWorks, the superior and inferior surfaces can be combined into one design model. Both surfaces can be clipped using the outer meniscal edge as a margin (FIG. 11).

From this information, joint implants can be designed that take into consideration the dimensions. FIGS. 13A and B are views of a joint implant suitable for use on a condyle of the femur. These views are shown from the inferior and superior surface viewpoints. The surfaces, edges and height of the implant can be adjusted to account for the measurements taken to achieve an implant with an optimal patient fit. FIG. 14 is a view of an implant suitable for placement in a joint knee and placed on a portion of the tibial plateau. FIGS. 15A-D are views of an implant suitable for the hip. These implants can also be designed so that the surfaces, edges and height of the implants can be adjusted to account for the measurements taken as well as the patient specific criteria, as appropriate or desirable.

XIII. Accuracy of 3D Imaging and 3D Sizing Techniques for Deriving 3D Shape of Implant

In order to determine how much the predicted meniscal surface, calculated from the generic model, differs from the true shape of the meniscus, healthy volunteers can be examined. Suitable spiral CT, also with intravenous or intra-articular contrast enhancement, or MRI images can be acquired, from which medial and lateral menisci can then be extracted using live wire segmentation, or other suitable mechanisms. Furthermore, the generic models for the medial and lateral meniscus can be fitted as described above. For each subject, the medial and lateral meniscus that was segmented from the MRI can be compared to the fitted models as follows:

-   -   1. For each point P=(x,y,z) in the segmented data set choose the         closest point P₁=(x₁,y₁,z₁) from the fitted model with z₁≧z and         the two closest points P₂=(x₂,y₂,z₂) and P₃=(x₃,y₃,z₃) with         z₂,z₃≦z.     -   2. The point P is projected orthogonally onto the plane defined         by P₁, P₂ and P₃. The projected point P′ is given by:

$P^{\prime} = {P - \frac{\left( {{P - P_{1}},n} \right)}{\left( {n,n} \right)}}$

-   -    where n is the normal to the plane and (•, •) denotes the dot         product.     -   3. Calculate the distance d, between P and the plane, given by         d ₁ =∥P′−P∥.  i.     -   4. Repeat 1-3 with P₁=(x₁,y₁,z₁) such that z₁≦z and         P₂=(x₂,y₂,z₂) and P₃=(x₃,y₃,z₃) such that z₂,z₃≧z, resulting in         d₂.     -   5. Calculate the mean distance for P: d(P)=(d₁+d₂)/2.     -   6. Calculate the total distance measure D over all points in the         segmented data set:

$D = {\sum\limits_{P}{{\mathbb{d}(P)}.}}$

The total distance measure D depends on the relative position of the segmented MRI data and the fitted model in the coordinate system. This relative position can be optimized to minimize D by adjusting the rigid body transformation T that positions the model in an iterative registration process based on the iterative closest point algorithm, using D(T) as a cost function.

Typically, it is anticipated that the accuracy of this fitting approach is sufficient if the average distance D/n, where n is the number of points in the segmented data, is below 1.5 mm.

The foregoing description of embodiments of the present invention has been provided for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to the practitioner skilled in the art. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention and its practical application, thereby enabling others skilled in the art to understand the invention and the various embodiments and with various modifications that are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the following claims and equivalents. 

What is claimed:
 1. A method of selecting an implant having an inner surface for attachment to a bone of a patient's knee joint and an outer surface for providing an articular surface, the method comprising: obtaining electronic image data of the knee joint; generating a three dimensional representation of the knee joint; deriving, from the three dimensional representation, a shape of articular tissue including cartilage of the knee joint; determining one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle of the knee joint based on the three dimensional representation; selecting the implant from a library of implants based on the one or more dimensions of the femoral condyle; and adjusting one or more dimensions of the selected implant to achieve an optimal fit with the patient's knee joint.
 2. The method of claim 1, further including determining one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau of the knee joint based on the three-dimensional representation.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau are selected from the group consisting of an anterior-posterior length of the medial tibial plateau, an anterior-posterior length of the lateral tibial plateau, a medio-lateral width of the medial tibial plateau, a medio-lateral width of the lateral tibial plateau, and a distance from the tibial spine to an edge of the tibial plateau.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau are selected from the group consisting of an anterior-posterior length of the tibial plateau and a medio-lateral width of the tibial plateau.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau are selected from an anterior-posterior length of the medial tibial plateau, an anterior-posterior length of the lateral tibial plateau and a medio-lateral width of the tibial plateau.
 6. The method of claim 1, including determining one or more dimensions of a medial condyle of the knee joint.
 7. The method of claim 1, including determining one or more dimensions of a lateral condyle of the knee joint.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle are selected from the group consisting of an antero-posterior length of the medial femoral condyle, an antero-posterior length of the lateral femoral condyle, a medio-lateral width of the medial femoral condyle, a medio-lateral width of the lateral femoral condyle, an anterior-posterior distance of the femur, a superior-inferior distance of the femur, a medio-lateral distance of the femur, a distance from the trochlea to an edge of the femur; and a width of the intercondylar notch.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle include at least two or more medio-lateral widths of a medial and/or a lateral femoral condyle.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle include at least two or more composite medio-lateral widths of the joint from a medial to a lateral femoral condyle.
 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising: deriving, from the three dimensional representation, a shape of articular tissue surrounding or adjacent articular tissue of the knee joint, wherein determining the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle is further based, at least in part, on the derived shape of the surrounding or adjacent articular tissue.
 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising determining one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau of the knee joint.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau is selected from the group consisting of an anterior-posterior length of the medial tibial plateau, an anterior-posterior length of the lateral tibial plateau, a medio-lateral width of the medial tibial plateau, a medio-lateral width of the lateral tibial plateau, and a distance from the tibial spine to an edge of the tibial plateau.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau include an anterior-posterior length of the medial tibial plateau, an anterior-posterior length of the lateral tibial plateau and a medio-lateral width of the tibial plateau.
 15. The method of claim 1, further comprising: deriving, from the three dimensional representation, a shape of articular tissue surrounding or adjacent diseased articular cartilage of the knee joint, wherein determining the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle is derived, at least in part, based on subchondral bone underlying the cartilage or surrounding or adjacent articular tissue.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the image data is obtained by one or more imaging techniques selected from the group consisting of MRI, CT, laser, ultrasound, digital tomosynthesis, optical coherence tomography, optical imaging and combinations thereof.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the image data is obtained non-invasively.
 18. A method of selecting an implant having an inner surface for attachment to a bone of a patient's knee joint and an outer surface for providing an articular surface, the method comprising: obtaining electronic image data of the knee joint; generating a three dimensional representation of the knee joint; deriving, from the electronic image data, a shape of articular tissue including cartilage of the knee joint; determining, based at least in part on the three dimensional representation, one or more medio-lateral dimensions of a femoral condyle of the knee joint; selecting the implant from a library of implants based on the one or more medio-lateral dimensions of the femoral condyle; and adjusting one or more dimensions of the selected implant to achieve an optimal fit with the patient's knee joint.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the one or more medio-lateral dimensions of a femoral condyle include at least two or more medio-lateral widths of a medial and/or a lateral femoral condyle.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle include at least two or more composite medio-lateral widths of the joint from a medial to a lateral femoral condyle.
 21. The method of claim 18, further including determining one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle selected from the group consisting of an antero-posterior length of the medial femoral condyle, an antero-posterior length of the lateral femoral condyle, a medio-lateral width of the medial femoral condyle, a medio-lateral width of the lateral femoral condyle, an anterior-posterior distance of the femur, a superior-inferior distance of the femur, a medio-lateral distance of the femur, a distance from the trochlea to an edge of the femur; and a width of the intercondylar notch.
 22. A method of selecting a tibial implant having an inner surface for attachment to a bone of a patient's knee joint and an outer surface for providing an articular surface, the method comprising: obtaining electronic image data of the knee joint; generating a three dimensional representation of the knee joint; deriving, from the three dimensional representation, a shape of articular tissue including cartilage of the knee joint; determining one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau of the knee joint based on the three-dimensional representation; selecting the implant from a library of implants based on the one or more dimensions of the tibial plateau; and adjusting one or more dimensions of the selected implant to achieve an optimal fit with the patient's knee joint.
 23. The method of claim 22, further comprising determining one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle of the knee joint based on the three dimensional representation.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle include one or more medio-lateral dimensions of a medial and/or a lateral condyle.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle include at least two or more medio-lateral widths of a medial and/or a lateral femoral condyle.
 26. The method of claim 23, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle include at least two or more composite mediolateral widths of the joint from a medial to a lateral femoral condyle.
 27. The method of claim 22, comprising determining one or more dimensions of a medial and/or a lateral condyle of the knee joint based on the three dimensional representation.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the one or more dimensions of a femoral condyle is selected from the group consisting of an antero-posterior length of the medial femoral condyle, an antero-posterior length of the lateral femoral condyle, a medio-lateral width of the medial femoral condyle, a medio-lateral width of the lateral femoral condyle, an anterior-posterior distance of the femur, a superior-inferior distance of the femur, a medio-lateral distance of the femur, a distance from the trochlea to an edge of the femur; and a width of the intercondylar notch.
 29. The method of claim 22, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau include an anterior-posterior length of the medial tibial plateau, an anterior-posterior length of the lateral tibial plateau and a medio-lateral width of the tibial plateau.
 30. The method of claim 22, wherein the one or more dimensions of a tibial plateau is selected from the group consisting of an anterior-posterior length of the medial tibial plateau, an anterior-posterior length of the lateral tibial plateau, a medio-lateral width of the medial tibial plateau, a medio-lateral width of the lateral tibial plateau, and a distance from the tibial spine to an edge of the tibial plateau. 